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French
general and emperor (1804-15). Born in Corsica to parents of
Italian ancestry, he was educated in France and became an army
officer in 1785. He fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and
was promoted to brigadier general in 1793. After victories
against the Austrians in Northern Italy, he negotiated the Treaty of
Campo Formio (1797). He attempted to conquer Egypt (1798-99) but
was defeated by the British under H. Nelson in the Battle of the
Nile.
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The Coup of 18-19 Brumaire brought him to power in 1799,
and he installed a military dictatorship, with himself as First
Consul. He introduced numerous reforms in government, incl. the
Napoleonic Code, and reconstructed the French education system.
He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the pope. After victory
against the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo (1800), he
embarked on the Napoleonic Wars. The formation of coalitions of
European countries against him led Napoleon to declare France a
hereditary empire and to crown himself emperor in 1804. He won
his greatest military victory at the Battle of Austerlitz
against Austria and Russia in 1805. He defeated Prussia at the
Battles of Jena and Auerstedt (1806) and Russia at the Battle of
Friedland (1807). He then imposed the Treaty of Tilsit on
Russia, ending the fourth coalition of countries against France.
Despite his loss to Britain at the Battle of Trafalgar, he
sought to weaken British commerce and established the
Continental System of port blockades. He consolidated his
European empire until 1810, but became embroiled in the
Peninsular War (1808-14). He led the French army into Austria
and defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram (1809),
signing the Treaty of Vienna. To enforce the Treaty of Tilsit,
he led an army of over 450,000 into Russia in 1812, winning the
Battle of Borodino, but was forced to retreat from Moscow with
disastrous losses. His army greatly weakened, he was met by a
strong coalition of allied powers, who defeated him at the
Battle of Leipzig (1813). After Paris was taken by the allied
coalition, Napoleon was forced to abdicate in 1814 and was
exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815 he mustered a force and
returned to France to reestablish himself as emperor for the
Hundred Days, but was decisively defeated at the Battle of
Waterloo. He was sent into exile on the remote island of St.
Helena, where he died six years later. One of the most
celebrated figures in history, Napoleon revolutionized military
organization and training and brought about reforms that
permanently influenced civil institutions in France and
throughout Europe |
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